During an era of the mature and late Middle Ages in Europe interest in religious philosophy which basis the connection of doctrines of Christianity with a rationalistic technique was became stronger. This type of Christian philosophy called scholasticism made the whole era in development of philosophical thought.
The main maintenance of the European philosophy in the Middle Ages
Its close connection with religious concepts was characteristic feature of medieval Western European philosophy. On the purposes the philosophy of that time was Christian and developed attendants of a cult. Therefore in the Middle Ages the Christian picture of the world and idea of thinkers of god had a decisive influence on philosophical thought. But thinking was not uniform in those days that was promoted by existence of various religious directions and disputes between them. In general ways of development of philosophical thought were defined by Christian outlook.
Patristika and scholasticism: two directions of a medieval thought
On the tasks facing philosophical thought, the medieval philosophy was divided into two big periods which received the names "patristika" and "scholasticism".
Patristika (2-8th centuries) on chronology partially coincides with an antique era though on subject entirely treats the Middle Ages. Emergence of this stage was defined by need of full withdrawal from ancient art, the aspiration to dissociate from pagan traditions and to strengthen young christian teaching. During this period the fathers of church used language of neoplatonik. Religious discussions disputes on the Trinity nature, the doctrine on superiority of soul over a body were put in the forefront. Augustine Aurelius (354-430) whose works became the main source of philosophical thought of those times is considered the most influential representative of an era of a patristika.
The scholasticism developed from VIII to the 15th century as a branch of philosophy which cornerstone the rationalization of Christian dogma was. The name of a current came from the Latin word schola, i.e. "school". Implicitly the object to put dogmatics in order, to make it habitual and easy for understanding and assimilation by the ordinary people who were not knowing the diploma was set for scholasticism. The early period of scholasticism was characterized by increase in interest in knowledge and big independence of thinking at statement of philosophical questions.
Reasons of the eminence of scholasticism:
- it turned out that it is simpler to comprehend the truth of belief by means of reason;
- philosophical arguments allow to avoid criticism of the religious truth;
- the dogmatism gives to the Christian truth the systematic form;
- the philosophical dogma has substantiality.
Early scholasticism
Monasteries and schools at them became welfare fundamentals of early scholasticism. The birth of the new scholastic ideas went in disputes on the place of dialectics which was understood as methodical reasonings. Was considered that skholast had to be able to understand well incidents and to operate with categories of semiotics and semantics which cornerstone the ideas about polysemy of words and their symbolical value are.
Perspective of early scholasticism:
- relationship of knowledge and belief;
- question of the nature of a universal;
- association of logic of Aristotle with other forms of knowledge;
- coordination of mystical and religious experience.
The archbishop Anselm Kenterberiysky (1033-1109) was one of the most famous thinkers of the early period of scholasticism. Its doctrine defended the ideas that true thinking and belief cannot contradict; the truth of belief can be proved by reason; the belief precedes reason. Anselm Kenterberiysky put forward the so-called ontologic proof of life of god.
Dispute on a universal
One of the central moments of development of scholasticism at its early stage – a dispute on a universal. Its essence came down to a question: whether there can be general definitions in itself? Or they are inherent only in thinking? Disputes over this occasion defined subject of philosophical thought for several centuries and led to wide circulation of a scholastic method.
The dispute on a universal led to formation of three points of view which treat:
- extreme realism;
- extreme nominalism;
- moderate realism.
The extreme realism claimed that a universal (that is childbirth and types) exists before things – as quite real entities. The extreme nominalism proved that a universal is only the general names existing after things. Representatives of moderate realism believed that childbirth and types is directly in things.
High scholasticism
Blossoming of scholasticism fell on the 12th century and was followed by creation of the universities – higher educational institutions. Philosophical researches of authoritative teachers led to emergence of large compositions in the field of scholasticism. The image of philosophical science began to be formed by means of loan of works of Aristotle. Acquaintance to works of this thinker Antichnosti happened in Europe thanks to the translations from Arabic. The curriculum of the universities included studying works of Aristotle and extensive comments on them. The tradition of scholasticism included also development of the logical and natural science directions.
Reflections about search of the spiritual truth paved the way for emergence of so-called high scholasticism which base were universities which appeared in Europe. In the 13-14th centuries the movement of philosophical thought was supported by representatives of mendicant orders – Franciscans and Dominicans. Texts of Aristotle and his late commentators became an incentive to intellectual searches. Opponents of theses of Aristotle considered them incompatible with provisions of Christian belief and sought to remove contradictions between religious views and knowledge.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) in whose compositions were merged together Aristotle's doctrine, an avgustianstvo and Neoplatonism became a great sistematik of the Middle Ages. The influential philosopher made an attempt to put communications of these directions with truly Christian philosophy in order.
Thomas Aquinas offered own answer to a question of how the belief and human mind correspond. They cannot contradict each other, proceed from a uniform divine source. The divinity and philosophy lead to identical conclusions, though differ in the approaches. The God's revelation bears to mankind only that truth which is necessary for rescue of people. Protecting the belief bases, the philosophy masters the space suitable for an independent research of the nature of things.
Late scholasticism
The era of late scholasticism coincided with philosophizing decline time. The nominalism fell with criticism upon metaphysical views of old schools, but did not offer the new ideas. In a dispute on the nature of a universal the representatives of old schools stood up for moderate realism. Among thinkers of this stage there is development of scholasticism – Johann Duns Scott and William Okkam. The last suggested that real sciences have to consider not things, but terms replacing them being their representatives.
The crisis phenomena were peculiar to the period of late scholasticism. Among thinkers, voices which were urged to pass from speculative metaphysical reasonings to direct studying the nature are distributed. The special role belonged to the British thinkers, in particular Roger Bacon here. Some ideas of this period were acquired and apprehended by the Reformation subsequently.
Historical value of scholasticism
The main line of orthodox scholasticism – submission of philosophical thought to the authority of church doctrines, bringing down of philosophy to the level of "the servant of divinity". The scholasticism actively processed heritage of the previous era. The mindset within scholasticism remains to the right principles of the theory of knowledge of antique idealism and in a sense represents the philosophizing wearing a uniform of interpretation of texts.
Development of the ideas of nominalism was followed by emergence of the new ideas in natural sciences. Evolution of scholasticism at the same time did not stop though its traditions were in many respects lost. Interest in the ideas of scholasticism became reaction to the Reformation and the Renaissance; throughout the 16th and 17th ages of a basis of the doctrine of skholast continued to develop in Italy and Spain. After end of a long era of blossoming the scholasticism was replaced by the so-called neoscholasticism which arose in the 19th century.
The scholasticism had serious impact on all modern to it culture. The technique of partition of the general concepts peculiar to this type of philosophy occurs in sermons of that time, in legends and lives of Saints. Scholastic working methods with texts found application in poetry and in other wordly genres. Focused on "school" thinking with the fixed rules, the scholasticism made possible further development of the European philosophy.